Theories of Social Evolution Herbert Spencer versus Franz...

Theories of Social Evolution Herbert Spencer versus Franz Boaz Herbert Spencer and Franz Boaz had two opposing theories on the social evolution theory. Each theory was difficult to prove but great theories. But both theories had its ups and downs. Herbert Spencer was born in England, he is best known for developing and applying the evolutionary theory to philosophy and psychology. The evolutionary theory states that societies go from simple societies to complex societies. The more complex a society is the more evolved they are. A complex society is more civilized with different social levels of politics, such as slaves and kings. He proclaimed, Only the strongest survives.. Spencer explained a†¦show more content†¦Spencer compared societies by categorizing race and culture, which he viewed at one term. Spencer felt race and culture were not different enough to be classified as two different terms. Spencer believed that every race that belonged to a society is the same as the next, but some are more evolved then others. A simple society developed into a complex society through prospective steps. A society can go only from simple to complex. The only time a society could go from complex to simple was if a national disaster occurred, but he explained that the most evolved society would develop back at a faster rate. Boaz was a Jewish German American anthropologist and ethnologist. His theory on social evolution stated that no truly pure race existed and no race is innately superior to any other. He confirmed the differences in peoples were the result of historical, social and geographic conditions and all people had equally developed cultures. Boaz was objective. He lived within different societies around the world while collecting data on everything he saw, from language, customs and history. He concluded that a society can survive through corporation just as well as a society can through competition. How a society survives depends on its psychological conditions, what satisfies their human needs. No matter how a

Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements Free Essays

COMPARISON OF LOW COST SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES PROVIDED TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS Mthunzi Rubuluza (Fill your name in under â€Å"Prepare, Properties, Doc Properties, Advanced†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and update this field) Student Number 200732536 A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the BTech Degree in Civil Engineering† Cape Town 23 September 2011 Declaration I, Mthunzi Rubuluza declare that this research dissertation is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the BTech Degree at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements or any similar topic only for you Order Now _______________________________________________ (Signature) Signed in Cape Town this _____________ day of ______________________ 2011 Abstract The influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation. The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams. The full range of technical options for providing adequate basic sanitation is still not widely known nor are the characteristics of the different options well understood. In particular, there is little appreciation of the long-term financial, environmental and institutional implications of operating and maintaining the various sanitation systems. As a result, in many cases communities and local governments are choosing technical options that, in the long term, are unaffordable and/or unsustainable. Challenges arise from the wide range of options available and the differing environments and conditions to which each is suited. On-site sanitation is the main form of excreta disposal in most sub-Saharan African cities and will remain the most appropriate level of service for the urban poor in the medium term. Despite heavy public investment in sewerage systems in most primary and some secondary cities, typically only 10-15% of the urban population benefit from access to the sewer network. About 80% of the urban population depends on on-site facilities such as septic tanks and pit latrines which, unlike sewers, are usually the responsibility of households. Acknowledgements I would like to humbly acknowledge everybody who supported me with prayers and encouragement My supervisor, Mr. C. Muanda, thank you for your mentorship and guidance The group members for the support they gave me when hope was gone. My friends who opened up their house for me to become a study area My Family, thank you for your guidance and teachings My dear wife, I love you, thank you for being there for me, supporting me and Mostly to my God, thank you Father for giving me strength every day Table of Contents Page Declarationii Abstractiii Acknowledgementsiv Table of Contentsv List of Figuresviii List of Tablesix List of Symbolsx Terms and conceptsxi Chapter 1Introduction1 1. 1Background and Motivation1 1. 2Research problem1 1. 3Research Question1 1. 4Objectives and outcomes2 1. 5Significance2 1. 6Delineation2 1. 7Assumptions2 1. 8Methodology2 1. 9Organisation of dissertation3 Chapter 2Literature review and theory4 2. 1Introduction4 2. 2Purpose of Sanitation Technologies4 2. 2. 1Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities4 . 3Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies6 2. 3. 1Low cost sanitation technology6 2. 3. 2Institutional technologies for sanitation6 2. 4Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 1Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 2Wet system7 2. 5Operational Requirements8 2. 5. 1Dry system8 2. 6Implementation Challenges in South Africa8 2. 6. 1Implementation Challenge s at Provincial level9 2. 6. 2Implementation Challenges at City level9 2. 6. 3Implementation challenges within community and household level9 2. 7Types of Sanitation Facilities10 2. 7. 1Improved sanitation facilities10 . 7. 2Unimproved sanitation facilities10 2. 7. 3Unimproved sanitation (bucket system)10 2. 7. 4Improved sanitation (Septic tank)10 2. 8On-site sanitation11 2. 9Off-site sanitation11 2. 10Sanitation Guidelines for End-user11 2. 11Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities12 2. 11. 1Implementation process during planning12 2. 12Sanitation Provision Policy12 2. 13Costs13 2. 13. 1Cost on various levels13 2. 14Conclusion13 2. 15References15 Chapter 3Research methodology16 3. 1Research design16 3. 2Research methodology16 3. 2. 1Data16 3. 2. 2Data Collection16 3. 2. 3Research Equipment17 . 3Methodology17 3. 3. 1Objective 1 – To investigate available sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. 17 3. 3. 2Objective 218 3. 3. 3Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option18 3. 4Semi Structured Interviews19 Chapter 4Discussion20 4. 1Types of Sanitation Technologies20 4. 1. 1Dry toilets20 4. 1. 2MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)21 4. 1. 3Conservancy tank21 4. 1. 4VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit)22 4. 2On-site Sanitation22 4. 2. 1Pour flush slabs22 4. 2. 2Communal or shared technologies23 4. 2. 3Septic Tank24 4. 3Design24 4. Manufactures Cost25 4. 4. 1MobiSan toilets25 4. 4. 2Pre-cast toilets25 4. 5Photographs25 Figure 4. 1 Cluster of communal toilets26 4. 6STATS SA26 4. 6. 1Population census 200126 Chapter 5Discussion28 5. 1Sanitation Technology Options28 5. 2Operation and Maintenance29 5. 3Selection of an Appropriate Technology30 5. 3. 1Key issues raised for selection appropriate technology30 5. 4Sanitation Provision Approach31 5. 4. 1Supply driven sanitation31 5. 4. 2Demand driven sanitation31 5. 5Performance of these Sanitation Facilities31 There is not enough space due to the density of the settlements. 40 5. Guidelines and Policy42 5. 6. 1Strategy for Sanitation Services to Informal Settlements42 5. 6. 2Costing Guideline for Sanitation Facilities42 5. 7Basic Sanitation Policy Principles44 1. Sanitation must respond to the demands of communities and should link to improved hygiene awareness. For people to benefit from sanitation improvements, everybody must understand the link between their own health, good hygiene and toilet facilities. 44 2. Communities must be fully involved in projects. DWAF is only the regulator. Citizens have rights but also responsibilities in taking charge of their own health. 4 3. Sanitation must be provided in conjunction with water supply and other municipal services. 44 4. Sanitation is more than just toilets; it must be accompanied by environmental and health education. 44 5. Access to basic sanitation is a human right. 44 6. Local government has the constitutional responsibility to provide access to sanitation services. 44 7. Scarce public funds must be prioritised to help those most at risk. 44 8. Limited national funds should be fairly distributed throughout the country. 44 9. Water has an economic value and must be protected through sanitation. 44 10. Polluters must pay to clean up the water and the environment they have polluted. 44 11. Sanitation must be financially sustainable. 44 12. The environment must be protected when sanitation systems are set up and run. 44 5. 7. 1What will the Basic Household Policy Achieve? 44 CHAPTER 6 Recommendation and Conclusion45 References47 Appendices48 Appendix A. Questionnaire for users48 List of Figures Page Body Figure 2. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 2 [Replace this text with your own caption – don’t forget to cite reference if appropriate – don’t change figure numbering or caption style]Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 3 [Replace this text with your own caption – don’t forget to cite reference if appropriate – don’t change figure numbering or caption style]Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 4 Replace this text with your own caption – don’t forget to cite reference if appropriate – don’t change figure numbering or caption style – these are Blue Hills –don’t put them or Blue Sky stuff in your dissertation. (Name, 2007)Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 3. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 2 Sample figure and figure caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 3 Sample figure and figure caption. Make sure figure is big enough to read easily – not like this one! (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendices Figure A. 1 Sample appendix figure caption48 Figure A. 2 Sample appendix figure caption48 Figure B. 1 Sample appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure B. 2 Sample appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure C. 1 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure C. 2 Sample appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure D. 1 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure D. 2 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure D. 3 Sample appendix figure caption49 List of Tables Page Body Table 4. 1Replace this text and table with your own – don’t forget to cite reference if appropriate – don’t change table numbering or caption styleError! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 2 Sample Table (note use of repeated header as table split across page – only split if it can’t be avoided) (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 3Replace this text and table with your own – don’t forget to cite reference if appropriate – don’t change table numbering or caption style (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendices Table A. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table A. 2 Another appendix table example48 Table A. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)48 Table A. 4 Another appendix table example48 Table B. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! 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Table C. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table C. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table C. 4 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 4 Another appendix table example49 List of Symbols Constants ab| Distance between mid-chord and elastic axis(mm)| | B| Airfoil half-chord(mm)| | C| Non-dimensional distance between airfoil mid-chord and flap hinge line(-)| | U| Free stream velocity(m/s)| | W| Flexure width(mm)| | X| Distance along span(mm)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between airfoil pitch axis and airfoil cg(-)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between flap hinge axis and flap cg(-)| | | | | Greek letters ?| Pitch angle (rad)| | ?| Flap angle (rad)| | | Commanded flap angle (rad)| | ?| Tensile stress (MPa)| | ?| Shear stress (MPa)| | ?| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Subscripts/superscripts A| Aerodynamic| | H| Related to plunge degree of freedom| | ?| Related to pitch degree of freedom| | ?| Related to flap degree of freedom| | S| Structural| | W| Wing| | T| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Terms and concepts VIP| Ventilated Improvement Pit| UDS| Urine Diversion System| Eco San| Ecological Sanitation| MCSF| Mobile Community Sanitation Facility| MO| Municipal Officer| IS| Informal Settlement| MobiSan| Mobile Sanitation| AB| Ablution Block| Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources. When improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system, sustainability criteria related to the following aspects should be considered, health, includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal. This literature review covers types of sanitation, characteristics of sanitation, sanitation provision policy, criteria for selection of sanitation, conclusion. Background and Motivation The influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation. The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams. Informal settlements by their nature are quite densely populated and access through the settlement is quite hard. Basic services are larking due to the fact there are no structures that govern the raise of settlements and the need to deliver basic sanitation services increases. There is a huge need to analyse which technology functions within the limits experienced in informal settlements. Research problem The influx of migrants from rural area impoverished and densely populated areas in South Africa towards prosperous regions is creating immense pressures on the existing infrastructure. The conditions of life to informal settlements tend to be poor, with low mobility, and difficult access to health, education, recreation and sanitation. Informal settlements are created without planning and basic infrastructure. Due to the large number of sanitation technologies available and dynamic of these informal settlements, the choice of suitable and sustainable sanitation technology is of utmost importance. Currently, sanitation services provided are not accepted by settlers. Where it is supplied, it is vandalised or misused. This results in unnecessary pressure on decision makers to provide adequate sanitation and loss of investment. Research Question Which is the most practical low cost sanitation technology that can be provided for informal settlements in the Western Cape? Objectives and outcomes The aim of this work is to investigate the existing sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements in the Western Cape. To investigate available sanitation technologies provided in informal settlement (Cape Flats) technology by outlying, (advantages disadvantages) from operational, design, maintenance and cost perspective. To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics; (dry or wet sanitation; individual or communal). To select the most suitable sanitation options. Recommend the most suitable option. A questioner will be used to find view points of the community within informal settlements. Operational costs and Structural costs per unit Significance This study intends to provide a Better Understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. Delineation This study will focus only on the sanitation facilities within informal settlements in the Western Cape. The research will compare sanitation facilities provided for highly serviced areas within the Western Cape and the design for formal settlements will be mentioned. Assumptions The expected results of the study are as follow: †¢An overview of sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements †¢Outline key criteria used for selecting the area for the technology †¢Provide a cost effective sanitation technology for informal settlements Methodology There will be three (3) informal settlements around the Western Cape that will be selected based on the type of sanitation provided. (Kuyasa, New Crossroad and Nyanga). Field visits will be conducted to look at each sanitation type provided for the people of that particular informal settlement. Visual assessment will used as a way of assessing the facilities at selected case study sites. The assessment will be done with the following: -Design -Operation -Maintenance operations cost effectiveness -Interview with a Water Sanitation official -Views of users Organisation of dissertation Here you must describe briefly how the dissertation unfolds. Don’t just list the chapter headings – say a little about each one. Introduce the chapters in the order in which they appear and give an overview of the main points considered in each, except for your introduction (Chapter 1) of which this is the last section i. e. it is reasonable to assume this introduction has just been read. Simply state what is covered in each chapter and in what order, to reveal the logic and structure of the dissertation. Do not give any proofs, arguments or results here. Complete this section last to ensure it describes the dissertation accurately. Literature review and theory This chapter is about the comparison of low cost sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the natural resources and the environment. When improving an existing or designing a new sanitation system, sustainable aspects should be considered. Institutional appropriateness, sanitation technologies should be managed at the lowest appropriate level, such as municipalities. The household is a major factor in sustaining human health and the environment. Beneficiary communities from the provision of sanitation technologies, or from improvements to existing sanitation technologies, must be partners in the planning, implementation and, where appropriate, operation and maintenance of these technologies or improvements. Of course, sanitation planning cannot be done in a wholly decentralized way: there has to be a coherent city-wide approach to sanitation, but the planning process has to take into account the views of the intended beneficiaries and recognise that the sanitation solutions for very poor, poor and non-poor households are likely to be very different. Affordable sanitation technologies must be affordable for the households using them. In the Western Cape in particular consideration must be given to the affordability of sanitation technologies for poor and very poor households. Purpose of Sanitation Technologies Background The prime purpose of a sanitation system is to break the disease cycle caused by the bacteria in human excreta. To do so, the system has to combat exposure to infection through all the stages from the generation of excreta to their final disposal or reuse. It is important to emphasise again that human behaviour is crucial and fostering behavioural change is a key component of sanitation system planning. In this chapter, though, we are concerned with the functional elements of the system. While individual components will vary considerably with local circumstances and will differ from community to community, the division into elements creates flexibility and choice in developing appropriate solutions. Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities There are a few principles that lead to beneficial changes for the community and the city as a whole. Below are the six (6) principles for affective strategic planning: 1. Respond on sound finance Service provision should respond to what the potential user wants and willing to pay for. 2. Focus on sound finances Intended users’ willingness to pay for sanitation systems will not be possible for expansion for facilities required. 3. Develop incentives for good practice Individuals and organisations act in a way that ensures the on-going availability of functioning sanitation services need to be incentives for good practice. 4. Involve stakeholders in appropriate ways Groups, individuals and organisation with an interest in some particular subject, in this case sanitation become stakeholders. All stakeholders need to be involved in developing policy context for sanitation acting as intermediaries between service user and service providers. . Take a wide view of sanitation Stakeholders should look beyond local solutions to narrowly defined problems and recognise the links between different sanitation services. Excreta disposal, solid waste management and drainage are interrelated and the impact of improvements in one will be reduced if they are carried out without regard to the others. 6. Take management steps towards intermediate objectives This principle is derived from the incremental approach to the development and implementation of strategies identified, when considering steps of improving set objectives. ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIRDED FOR SANITATION PURPOSES Five elements which need to be considered separately are as follows: †¢ The toilet – there is a wide range of latrines, water closets, urine-diversion toilets, etc. , that may be considered, depending on local circumstances. †¢ The collection system – septic tanks, pits, vaults, drums, may be appropriate in different environments. †¢ Transportation – large or small sewer systems, motorised, mechanical or manual haulage may need to be considered. Treatment – systems vary from sophisticated wastewater treatment plants and sludge digestion to simple composting systems and soil filtration. †¢ Use of sanitation products – urine, composted excreta and biogas are all important resources. If all five (5) elements for sanitation are adhered too then, Health, which is one of the aspects which include the risk of exposure to hazardous substances and pathogens that could affect public health a t all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal. Aspects such as hygiene, nutrition and improvement of livelihood achieved by the application of a certain sanitation system, as well as downstream effects needs to be prioritized. Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies The selection of appropriate sanitation technologies within informal settlements either locally (SA) or internationally, should be considered. . The physical environment and technical feasibility in which it can be installed (sanitation facility) for example; consideration has to be given for (altitude, ground slopes, soils, hydrogeology, housing density, liability to flooding and local climate. The selection must also be compatible both with local socio-cultural practices and preferences and with local socio-economic conditions, with the ability to pay for the sanitation arrangement selected and also willingness to pay for services rendered. Any selected low cost sanitation for any given community has to comply with the six (6) principles for sustainable sanitation. Low cost sanitation technology Sanitation is divided into two broad groups: on site and off site systems. The technologies are further divided into three (3) reuse categories: centralized reuse, intermittent reuse and decentralized reuse and these leads to different sets of sanitation solutions. Household or local community level is Decentralized reuse (a house block). Natural drainage basins within an urban area are Centralized reuse level (town, city), wastewater collection is required followed by wastewater treatment. Pit latrines, pour-flush toilets and septic tanks are all intermittent reuse which refers to on-site systems. Conventional sewerage is not covered as it is too expensive for informal settlements (IWA, 2004). Service delivery in a recent inventory indicates that most of the informal settlements are severely lagging behind in sanitation coverage. Government’s current approach is to aim to supply informal settlements with toilets to be shared within five (5) households. Most of the toilets are locked and their maintenance relies on the users. In the Western Cape especially in the Cape Flats area the types of toilets that are mostly used are chemical (Nyanga) and bucket system (New cross) as shared facilities while VIP and UDS are considered as individual facilities. The options mentioned are not always available or suitable for the informal settlements due to the nature of the settlements. These services are considered as emergency services but however remain with the communities for a long period of time (Mel’s et al, 2009). Institutional technologies for sanitation Institutional technologies for sanitation within South African government structures need to incorporate accountability. During the planning phase all sanitation technologies are prone to mismanagement (including sanitation selection). An assessment for the comparison of sanitation technology needs to include, who is responsible for what and the likelihood that these responsibilities can and will be effectively discharged over the appropriate timeframes (short, medium and long term commitments). A non-prescriptive professional attitude and in depth local knowledge is required for assessment purposes (Mara et al, 2001). Comparison of the two arrangements is vital because they deal with people and government entities on how to handle sanitation. The CoCT plays a critical role in identifying the need for sanitation in each community. Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities Due to the ever increasing need for free land and lack of space in our urban areas, alternative technologies in order to meet the sanitation demand and respond to the communities need to be made available. Temporary sanitation facilities such as the Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) have been introduced recently in areas where sanitation is to take place (Muanda, 2010). Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) varies in terms of their design, operational and use requirements. MCSF can be classified according to their operational requirements. In practice the common types that are found are either dry (not requiring water) and wet (requiring water). A system that uses both scenarios has been identified as an improvement solution dealing with various situations. Wet system This type of system requires water for its operation. There are several types of such systems that are being used throughout the world and in Africa such as the DMT (dignified mobile toilet). There are solar powered toilets, sewer connected mobile toilet. Mostly in South Africa the most commonly used system is the Kayaloo and Mobisan (Parkison et al, 2008). Dry system This type of sanitation system does not require water for its operation. There are a few in South Africa such as the Mobile Pit toilet. In the international arena the following system for dry systems technologies include the wheel toilet (Burkina Faso), composting mobile toilet (France), tricycle toilet (India and Sri Lanka) {Pickford, 1995}. Combined system This type of system is a dual system that can be used as dry or wet sanitation; it can operate without the availability of water or sewer. In the international arena, the NMT (Nepal Mobile Toilet) is the commonly used system under this category (Parkison et al, 2008). South African perception of MCSF The perception of users of mobile sanitation facilities are context based. The most preferred type of sanitation in South Africa is the individual full waterborne flush toilet. Communities within informal settlements are demanding that this type of sanitation should be provided to them at any cost regardless of the type of topography, shelter or the status of the land occupied. MCSF are seen by communities that the level of service is closer to that off the full flush toilet despite the communal status of the facility and communities are comfortable using it. Communities believe that this type of sanitation provides dignity and privacy compared to other types of sanitation in the areas. The slow pace of delivery and the long waiting for the provision of the individual sanitation has changed people’s perception recently. Most of the communities feel that the type of technology brought for a temporary basis has turned up to be a permanent solution (Grootboom, 2010). Operational Requirements City of Cape Town (CoCT) for example most of the settlements (75%) are located on land that is owned by the municipality and a large share which is (22%) is located in private lands. Consent from the owner has to be obtained by the Water Services Department in order to deliver services on site. Permission by many owners is not given due the fact that communities will make their temporally settlement a permanent one. A major constraint for sanitation service provision is the high density of settlements. Dry system The operation of this system does not require water for its operation and this is how the dry system is defined. Dry mobile sanitation system requires a location where the facility needs to be installed and the disposal point or discharging excreta when the box is full at the bottom of the system for cleaning purposes (Scandura Sobsey,1997). 2. 5. 2 Wet system The wet system for mobile sanitation requires water and sewer in order to make the system operational. A toilet bowl is connected under this sanitation system using a pipe linking to the sewer or septic tank. The system depends on water and cannot function if water is not available. In cases where there is no sewer line, the wastewater is pumped out and taken to a disposal site (Dorrigton, 2000). 2. 5. Combined system The combined system was designed to overcome the unavailability of water and the effects that can happen to the operation of such a system. It combines both systems and can be operated without water and with water (Parkison et al, 2008). Implementation Challenges in South Africa Communities in needy areas are waiting for the implementation of sanitation technology that will provide dignified sanitation to them. The success for the implementation should be designed in such that all the parameters of the technology are not compromised. In the past the focus was mainly on the technology of the sanitation facility, and recently the attention has shifted to the implementation methods of sanitation technologies. Implementation means the process of introduction of sanitation in communities, not necessary the design, but the development process of sanitation. Introduction of the strategy and approach towards the community is vita (Classen, 2003). Professionals in this field feel that the implementation plan should have the environment as the first priority, then after the technical aspects to meet he human societal needs, and finally the economic requirements with these communities. It has become clear from, human societal needs are important and technology must help achieve this basic needs (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at Provincial level The role of the provincial government needs to be clarified in the funding of urban infrastructure investments and the planning and the delivery of sanitation services is of utmost importance. A key challenge is the lack of capacity for sanitation promotion and progress monitoring. Evasion of funds that are exclusively allocated to sanitation is affecting service provision (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at City level Key challenges at municipal levels are related to the following issues: The lack of mechanisms bearing in mind the range of organizations that have a stake in sanitation for inter-agency collaboration on planning and service delivery. Not all municipalities at present accept that there is a problem with excreta disposal. For the achievements of national sanitation goals there is a lack of incentives and accountability. There is a shortage of capacity within the municipality in infrastructure development, planning, service delivery and sanitation promotion. Poorly understood and complicated mechanisms for accessing and allocating capital funds. The private sectors service delivery and maintenance in the safe removal, treatment and disposal of septic tank is under-developed and unregulated. Existing infrastructure is poorly maintained and operated (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation challenges within the community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities. The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003). For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered by government institutions. CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitation stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Implementation challenges within community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities. The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003). For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered by government institutions. CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitation stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Types of Sanitation Facilities The type of sanitation facilities listed below can be found throughout the Western Cape. The type of technology used for a particular settlement depends on the following elements which determine the final product being utilised i. e. topography, population, water resource and availability of the facility. Improved sanitation facilities This are facilities which are not shared or public, for example; flush or pour flush, piped system, pit latrine, septic tank, ventilated improved pit latrine with slab and compositing toilet (Franceys et. al 1992). Unimproved sanitation facilities Excreta is flushed to the street, yard or plot, open sewer, a ditch, a drainage way or other location pit latrine without slab or open pit, bucket, hanging toilet or hanging latrine and no facilities or bush or field (Lemer, 1996). Unimproved sanitation (bucket system) Design and function In the South African context the bucket is always black, pvc and is about 38 cm in diameter at the top and 30 cm at the bottom and has adequate handles for lifting and carrying. The collection chamber is situated below the squatting seat. All the chambers are open at the rear of the latrine, into the service lane used for collection. The collection chamber must be fly and animal proof. The chamber needs to be ventilated by means of a pipe vent carried to roof level of the superstructure (Pickford, 1995). Collection and conveyance of buckets On a weekly basis collection are done and gets replaced with a disinfected bucket. Buckets that are emptied into a tank and are returned immediately the practice should be condemned unreservedly. The time of the collection should be done in partnership with the community affected. Buckets are emptied at the disposal sites, thoroughly washed, and disinfected with phenol or creosol type of disinfectant before being stores away and re-used (Pickford, 1995). Improved sanitation (Septic tank) The most satisfactory unit all water-carried systems and the most useful system of disposal of excreta and other liquid wastes from individual dwellings, small groups of houses, or institutions located in informal settlements out of reach of sewer systems. The septic tank consists of a covered settling tank into which the raw sewage is led by the building sewer. Inside the septic tank the processes constitute the primary treatment of raw sewage; and those which occur in the disposal field form the secondary treatment. All liquids wastes, including those from bathrooms and kitchens, may be sent to the septic tank without endangering its normal operation. Contrary to popular belief, recent research has shown that sullage waste can and should be discharged into septic tanks (Lemer, 1996). On-site sanitation As it was mentioned before that there are two types of sanitation systems in this instance the On-site sanitation systems is generally designed and must operate in such a way excreta is deposited into a man-made container, usually a subsurface excavation or tank. The common trend to all forms of on-site sanitation is that decomposition process and settlement is performed on-site. This is the most low-cost sanitation system as it has various types of pit latrines. They can be either wet or dry systems. Due to the shortage of space and availability of land in informal settlements this system operates the best under these conditions (Lemer, 1996). Off-site sanitation This type of sanitation system transports sewage through sewer pipes using water. An off-site sanitation system only transport faecal matter away from households and does not include on-site decomposition to a significant degree. This type of system depends largely on the topography of the area and the planning around the system. There must be enough land and space before such a system is created, which is difficult in informal settlements. The cost of such a system is quite high (Scandura and Sobsey, 1997). The availability of funds and the topography play an important role in the decision making on what type of technology communities should have within informal settlements. Sanitation Guidelines for End-user Greater user acceptance is achieved through user involvement and influence in selection, implementation and management including operation of the technology is borne out of understanding and experience that people best understand their own development situation, social, cultural and religious practices. If the communities are involved it leads to greater ownership and empowerment and would translate into greater acceptance of responsibility and hence the technology. It is within the human nature to be more receptive and supportive when asked about one’s opinion as opposed to being dictated or told to what’s is best for oneself (Mara, 1996). Note the following reasons why services fail: †¢Ineffective planning, monitoring, evaluation and interventions †¢Poor technical capacity to implement †¢Hygiene and inappropriate use practises. †¢Low user acceptance and satisfaction †¢Inadequate community involvement Low priority and †¢Lack of responsibilities between municipal, community and household Finally- it is of great importance not to move too fast from temporary programmes to full-scale programmes, the community need to receive the programme so that it is not rejected. Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities Sanitation technolog y is adequately dependent on the appropriate design specification is borne out of the understanding that the correct design standards and locally appropriate materials would enhance the durability of the technology in a given local context. Planning plays a pivotal role as it is used as an important factor to determine whether appropriate and sustainable sanitation technologies are achieved. A planning model that integrates everyone is ideal (WSP, 2007) that takes place within the Integrated Development Planning (IDP) process (DWAF, 2001). The various sanitation options are demonstrated through the IDP process. A top-down to bottom-up approach for a planning model should drive the demand and should be entirely people centred, best achieved through a collective model (Tilley, 2008). Implementation process during planning A methodology for the provision of sanitation is necessary to establish sanitation for low-income settlements and to support and equip personal responsible for provision of sanitation to low-income settlements (Muanda, 2010). In the planning process specific emphasis for adequate functioning of the technology is placed on the environmental aspect, that local environmental and geological condition are considered and that the technology does not adversely impact on the environment (DWAF, undated). The recurring points that need to be systemised are as follows; Human rights and socio-cultural needs should be considered †¢Affordability for the user †¢Sanitation should be demand driven †¢Stakeholder participation †¢Support, regulation and implementation within the community participation framework should be considered. †¢Provision for construction should be to locals. †¢Community linkage at all levels During the implementation place it is important to include health and hygiene training as to ensure improved health and hygiene practice (Still et. al, 2009). What happens in the case where a local authority has provided such training? Over time many new comers arrive into the settlement (as is the case in many informal settlements)? The only solution to the question here is to train trainers in the community who will be responsible for constantly creating awareness in their community (DWAF, 2009). Sanitation Provision Policy South Africa despite being a democratic country for more than a decade, with a sound constitution and sound policies there is still high levels of poverty and inequalities and budgetary realignments designed to address the legacies of the past and steady economic growth (DWAF, undated). Some policies have been relatively successful but still South Africa has the second highest in equality in the world behind Brazil (UNICEF, 2000). The fact is that by 1996 not that much had been achieved by way of sanitation provision in any of the provinces (DBSA, 2009). Sanitation has become a high priority on the development agenda, and not just with the Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) sector specialist. The opportunities for financial support are better than ever, the political commitment is there, so as to deliver sustainable sanitation services to more than two billion people by 2015. A further 1,089 million rural and 1,085 million urban dwellers will need to gain access in the coming 15 years if the 2015 target is to be achieved. The first democratic government since 1994 has put in place policies that address the apartheid health legacy of racial discrimination. During this process, several key-pro equity policies were inherited in the public sector. In the South African context the policy not only influences the approach to the financing and management of projects but also their technical features (WHO, 1999). Costs Socio-cultural landscapes and local variations in the physical landscape necessitate local input into the selection process and any preconceived ideas should be put on hold. Discussions with the targeted community about local capital and operation and maintenance costs have to be determined in each case that will enable the community and local authorities to come to a decision based on affordability. It is important that agencies reporting comparative costs on a wholly transparent basis, so that only the â€Å"true† basic costs of sanitation arrangement are presented to the communities (DBSA, 2009). Cost on various levels There are five (5) principles for various levels. †¢All costs relating to the provision of sanitation service should be included †¢A distinction should be made between capital and operating costs †¢A clear distinction has to be made between internal and bulk services †¢Costs services must be expressed as current replacement at capacity cost. †¢Costs to be reduced per area or site. Cost sanitation technologies can also be influenced through the natural features such as vegetation, terrain and water availability and climatic conditions generally within the settlements. Conclusion The sanitation approach includes the perception, feel and practices involved in satisfying the primal need to defecate and urinate. Societal sanitation approach determines the nature of sanitation which serves as the crucial link between an unhealthy and healthy living environment. The term sanitation includes the safe disposal of domestic waste. For the purposes of this research, the structure seeks to understand the appropriate sanitation and identify a sanitation structure that is cost effective and will be sustainable in informal settlements. Sanitation facilities are used to improve human dignity regardless of the area and the circumstances of the people. In this study we have looked at the process that needs to be followed in order to have sanitation technologies that safe guard the people. In informal settlements due to the nature of their existence and the lack of formal services, the communities usually do not take ownership of these facilities. The onus is upon government to train people about the importance of sanitation. The study focussed mostly on technologies that are used internationally and locally. The comparison of this technologies will be based on cost, structural intact and the maintenance therefore of the technology. References Rockstrom, Johan et al. : Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation, Stockholm Environmental Institute, 2005. WHO UNICEF: Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target – The urban and rural challenge. WSSCC/Sandec (2000). The Bellagio Statement on Sustainable Sanitation. Jenssen et al. , 2004 P. D. Jenssen, J. Heeb, E. Huba-Mang, K. Gnanakan, S. W. Warner, K. Refsgaard, Stenstorm Thor-Axel, B. Guterstam and K. W. Alsen, Ecological sanitation and reuse of wastewater, ecosan, a thinkpiece on ecological sanitation (2004). HDR (Human Development Report), 2006 HDR (Human Development Report), Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, United Nations Development Programme, New York (2006). Dorrington RE, Bradshaw D, Budlender D. HIV/AIDS Profile of the Provinces of South Africa—Indicators for 2002. Cape Town, South Africa: Centre for Actuarial Research, Medical Research Council and the Actuarial Society of South Africa, University of Cape Town; 2002. Rogerson, C. (1993); South African policy lessons. Urban Forum Vol. 4; No. 2. Housing Conditions, sanitation status and associated health risks in selected subsidized low- cost housing settlements in Cape Town, South Africa. Govender, T. Jo M. Barnes. Joubert A, Stewart T (2003). Evaluation of water supply augmentation and water demand management options for the City of Cape Town, journal of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. Lemanski, C (2009). Augmented informality; South Africans backyard dwellings as a by-product of formal housing policies. WHO, (2006). Surveillance, planning, financing. Available online. City of Cape Town, Department of housing, (2004). Breaking new ground, comprehensive plan for housing delivery. Available online. Research methodology This chapter provides a comprehensive description of the comparison methods used to analyse sanitation technologies in informal settlements (IS). It outlines an overview of the research design, data collection, research equipment and research methodology used in order to meet the study objectives. Research design This section of the study is made up of the following: * Literature review which compromises of literature, a body review, a framework, a body of knowledge with regards to sanitation technologies. Data collection which compromise methods used to collect required data * Data Analysis and Presentation in the light of the literature review to determine the trends used for sanitation technologies for IS. Research methodology This study intends to provide a better understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost imp lications of such facilities. Data The data required in order to archive the study objectives includes the type of sanitation technology for IS and the cost in relation to sanitation technology. Data acquired was based on the following: †¢Type of sanitation †¢Cost (Operational Maintenance) †¢Cost (Infrastructure) †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of On-site sanitation †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-site sanitation Data Collection In order to collect data two methods are used (Two interviews Site visits). * Site visits on selected IS in order to assess the type of sanitation technology being used. The site visits where done by conducting visual assessment in three informal settlements with the Metro. Data was collected by comparing the types of technology that is being used within each settlement. A questionnaire template was used to gather user’s views and opinions on the technologies offered by the municipality. * An interview with the Municipal Officer (MO) to confirm or validate data/technology on site and the cost of the technology. The interview was set out to ascertain the magnitude and the need of sanitation facilities within informal settlements which is done by the municipality. Operational and maintenance cost of the technology being used was collected for comparison purposes. * An interview with manufactures of sanitation technologies was conducted in order to confirm cost per unit. All the manufactures that where contacted where primary manufactures that the municipality procures all their sanitation technologies. Rocla was one of the manufactures that was interviewed about their precast toilets. Rocla has two sets of precast toilets one with sanitation facilities and one without sanitation facilities. A comparison of the two technologies has been tabled in Chapter 4. Santec was also interviewed about their Mobile toilets which comprised two sets of toilets (dry wet). A comparison of the two technologies is outlined in Chapter 4. Research Equipment The following equipment was used for this study: * Pen; this tool was used to capture raw data from site. * Laptop; ; the laptop is used to store all data collected and is also used to make tables to present all the research work into a document * Digital Camera; the digital camera was used to take pictures on site and during interviews. * Mobile phone; mobile phones where used as a means of communication amongst all stakeholders involved. * Fax Machine; was used to send and also receive data from stakeholders without email facilities and scans. Landline; the tool was used for communication between office hours and is the most affordable means of communication. Methodology Objective 1 – To investigate available sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. The objective was implemented by conducting of site visits, during which visual assessments where used to compile the name of the technology, speci fic technical aspects such as design and the condition of the technologies on site. Below is a list of design technologies within informal settlements that where visited. * Porta potiies * Chemical toilets Container toilets * Conservancy tanks * Pour flush toilets * Pit latrines * Urine diversion toilets * MobiSan toilets * Environmental loo Objective 2 * To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics (dry or wet sanitation; individual or communal). Classification of the technology was done by identifying individual and communal sanitation technologies. * * Dry sanitation | * Wet sanitation| * A dry toilet differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system. Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling. | * These are the conventional full flush system with sewers and waste water treatment plants, full flush systems with septic tank and small bore sewers, and the full flush systems with shallow sewerage. With septic tanks will significantly reduce operating costs, while the third system shallow sewers will significantly reduce the capital costs. The advantages of this group of toilets are that they operate as full flush toilets, can accommodate grey water disposal, and are well suited to densely populated areas where the plot sizes are insufficient to treat and drain household wastes. | * Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option The suitable option was based on the advantages and disadvantages on the interview and the cost of the technology by the manufacture. The selected option is also based on the manufacture’s specification which used on site by the municipality and the budget allocated to the MO for that particular region. Advantages of On-site sanitation| Disadvantages of On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Semi Structured Interviews Semi structured interviews were conducted to collect data from users to obtain the users views on sanitation technologies and the type of service the municipality is rendering. Users were asked questions on sanitation situations, technology selection, performance of facilities, appropriateness of the technologies, operational and maintenance of the facilities. A total of twelve (12) interviews were conducted. See (Appendix A) for the questionnaire template. Table 1 shows the distribution of the interviews conducted. Area| No. of interviews| Gugulethu| 4| Khayelitsha| 4| Nyanga| 4| TOTAL| 12| Table 1Distribution of interviews The questionnaires were administered on site with the users of the selected informal settlements. Administration of questionnaires was conducted in Xhosa since most of the users were comfortable speaking the language. Due to the lack of finding suitable donor’s to fund our survey only small sample was administered that actually uses the facilities. Discussion This section of study reflects the visual assessment that was conducted on site. A questioner was used to ascertain the level of service from the end user on the three (3) identified sites. A comparison of technologies that is being offered in informal settlements by the municipality is also reflected. The physical structure of the technologies being offered by manufactures to municipalities. Operational and maintenance cost implication from the manufacture and that cost is later transferred or felt by the municipality. Types of Sanitation Technologies Technology| Settlement Name| Suburb Name| Porta potiies| KTC| Nyanga| Chemical toilets| KTC| Nyanga| Conservancy toilets| Monwabisi Park| Khayelitsha| Pour flush toilets| Barcelona| Gugulethu| Pit Latrines| Monwabisi Park | Khayelitsha| MobiSan toilets. | KTC| Nyanga| Dry toilets A dry toilet differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system. Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling. ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| No water required for flushing| Capital: R2000 – R 3500. 00 which can increase where soils not suited to drainage. | The toilet has to be cleaned without using much water. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R150 – R300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| May be used indoors| | Excreta have to be removed frequently to avoid smells, especially if the toilets are indoors| MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation) MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation) system in many ways has many advantages over existing dry systems. Below is a list of those advantages; MobiSan Advantages| MobiSan Disadvantages| The MobiSan system is an independent and self-contained system and has been proven that the system does not affect ground water at all. Faeces and urine are stored separately in the MobiSan. Urine is channelled away and the faeces fall into a ventilated chamber. The construction of the system is such that a handle on the outside of the cabin allows the solid waste to be stirred. The steering speeds up the drying of the excrement. The excrement is then channelled into a second component where this drying process is repeated again. The end product is dried up, it is pathogen-free manure that can be safely used to fertilise local vegetable gardens within the communities in informal settlements. This system lends itself as a more aesthetic and hygienic option for residents in informal settlements. | The technology provided is prone to vandalism and becomes full within a short period. Operating costs are very high. | Conservancy tank ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| Waste is flushed into the tank where it is contained in isolation from the surrounding environment. | Capital: R2000 – R 5000. 00 depending on top structure and tank volume| Becomes full if domestic wastewater levels are high. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R 550. 00 per household and emptying cost estimated at R181 per tank. The tank is emptied on average 3 times per year| Emptying cost over the lifespan of the technology is quite high. | VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| Applicable in rock terrain| Capital: R2500 – R 4500. 0Depending on householder input. | . Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| Does not require deep excavation| Operating: R35 – R135 every 2 years. | Prone to smells. | On-site Sanitation On-site sanitation has certain requirements, which need to be investigated before adopting the system. †¢The system must have adequate space for locating toilets and le ach pits. †¢The designated site must have porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta and †¢The groundwater depth should be greater than 1,5m from ground level. ADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| DISADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Pour flush slabs Pour flush slabs (squatting pans) are designed with a U-shaped facility which s partly filled with water under slab. The design which is U overcomes problems such as flies, mosquitoes’ and odour by serving as a water seal. After usage, excreta are manually flushed by pouring water into the pan with a scoop. The amount is about 1 to 4 litres of water which is required for each flush. The amount of water depends mainly on the design of the f acility and the U-trap. This type of toilet can be made from plastic and ceramic, or from galvanized sheet metal . ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| High level of convenience for the user| Capital: R 2000- R 3500 which can increase where soils are not well suited to drainage. Blockages occur a lot within these systems| The design reduces the need to handle fresh excreta. | Operating: R 150 – R 300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Requires small amounts of water for flushing| Can be used indoors| | Limited emptying service. | Communal or shared technologies In areas where there is not enough space, the sharing of latrines between several families is a useful solution. The common situation is where groups of households or small communal areas have latrines to be used by all the families. The ownership of the latrines generally belongs to one of the houses, the owner of all the houses, or else ownership is shared between the households. The costs of pit emptying and other repairs is often included in the rent, causing problems when the owner does not live there, or the residents must collaborate to clean the latrine and collect money to get it emptied when necessary. This is a very widespread practice. Communal of blocks of latrines are located in a public area, How to cite Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements, Papers

Leadership Strategies Extraordinary Performance

Question: Discuss about the Leadership Strategies for Extraordinary Performance. Answer: Introduction The essay aims to elucidate the leadership issues of modern organizations. More specifically, it's prime purpose is to discuss how the leaders confront difficulties in modern days. After discussing the major issues, the essay establishes a number of recommendations to overcome those leadership complexities. Apart from this, the study discusses the reason of gathering information in order to know about the people who are leading the information. This particular study creates a scope to acquire an in-depth knowledge about the recent problems of leadership along with the techniques to resolve them. Leadership issues in modern workplace In today's modern era, one common question is emerged that is 'why leadership becomes a major issue in modern workplaces?'. Rego et al. (2012) opined that that leaders are the key people who are needed to monitor the entire business, and motivate the teams. It is mentioned that at its core, the basic premise of business leadership will never change. The organizations will always have the need of the individuals who would encourage their stakeholders and inspire them to work together towards the common goal. However, Johnson (2013) specified that the environment of the workplaces has been transforming dramatically in the recent years. It has been found that the leaders are confronting a number of issues as well as challenges due to this rapid changes in business world. Thus, the senior management teams needs to figure out the effectives ways in order to navigate the modern business world. The major leadership issues that the leaders are confronting in the modern days are manifested in the below section: Rapid technological advancement: As per the discussion of Goleman et al. (2013), technological advancement has dramatically reshaped the organizing process and workplace environment over the past couple of decades. Rickards (2015) pointed out that the facility managers and the human resource leaders are facing comparatively more challenges because of this influx of new technology. In order to attain comparative advantages, they have to incorporate new technological tools and provide high office facilities. Besides, they need to keep the workplace updated all the times that helps them to make their business profitable. Western (2013) represented a different viewpoint that the technological improvement makes it quite easier for the managers to handle the operations. However, Rickards (2015) argued that it becomes quite difficult for the leaders to keep up the business at the highest level with the evolution of technology. Globalization and changing demographics: As opined by Rego et al. (2012), technology has opened up the entrance for global business opportunities. It is quite obvious that the global environment is more complex than the domestic environment. here, the leaders have to be more aware of what happens in the market. As the competition is much higher, it is difficult to survive and attain sustainable competitive advantages over the strong competitors. Western (2013) argued in this context that globalization has been giving lots of chances to the businesses to enter previously untapped markets. The organizations get the chances to expand their businesses and increase productivity. Milner and Joyce (2012) shed light at the different angle and stated that today's business world has been experiencing a huge shift in demographics. Cultural diversity is one of the major challenges that the leaders are experiencing due to globalization (Milner and Joyce 2012). Challenges in balancing productivity and cost: According to Holt and Marques (2012), the leaders' one of the prime responsibilities is to keep the financial condition of the business stable. In this modern century the businesses are experiencing increasing cost and thus find difficulties to maintain their budget. In supporting the discussion, Western (2013) stated that the effective leaders should minimize the cost and maximize the revenue simultaneously. This strategy helps them to increase their profit. However, it has also been discussed that the modern technology increases the cost so rapidly that most of the leaders fail to apply this strategy. In this context, Rickards (2015) argued that productivity has been improved due to globalization and modernization. The managers are now able to keep everyone connected on a constant basis. The level of communication has been improved and with this dramatic change in collaboration is heightening the communication flexibility (Rickards 201 5). Challenges heightening level of security: As per the viewpoint of Rego et al. (2012), the organizations need to heighten the level of security in this modern workplace. As the technology has the power to keep everything secure, it has the power to put everything in danger as well. For example, the savvy hackers try to get the sensitive information of the businesses through using technology. This means, in one way technology helps the organization to secure their information, and in the other it helps the hackers to put the business in danger. Milner and Joyce (2012) demonstrated that the entire responsibility relies on leaders' strategic policies and procedures. Sometimes, it becomes difficult for them to overlook all the processes at a time. Identifying customer needs and expectations: Johnson (2013) stated that sometimes customers expect more than they need. In this modern era, the consumers receive so many products which stands beyond their expectations. Modern technology offers lots of option from which they can choose and get the best one easily. At the same time, this make them to expect more and more from the organizations. In supporting the discussion, Goleman et al. (2013) stated that it becomes quite difficult for the leaders to indentify the needs and expectations as well. The key to success lies under giving customers what they want rather than what they need. The challenge is to find out what they need. Understanding employees' level of efficiency: As the working process has been changed due to the influx of new technologies, the employees find complexities in playing their roles effectively (Holt and Marques 2012). Holt and Marques (2012) stated more that the leaders face difficulties to decide how much they should change. Along with that, it is difficult to increase the level of efficiency of the employees in this changing work environment. Johnson (2013) added in this context that the employees need several training programs and motivation from their leaders. It is the leaders' responsibility to find out the ways through which they can motivate the employees to the highest possible extent. Motivation is the only way through which the employees can easily accept the changes and connect themselves with a common goal (Goleman et al. 2013). Dealing with conflicts present in workplace: The changing work environment creates conflicts and increases the confusion level as well. The manager of an organization is the only person who can remove the conflicts in the workplace (Goleman et al. 2013). Johnson (2013) added that conflicts at workplace affect the work efficiency of the employees and their productivity as well. The leaders need to give time to their employees and make open communication to reduce the problems that the employees face. However, time management is one of the major issues that the leaders have been facing in the modern technological era (Holt and Marques 2012). The leaders find difficulties to manage the time for all the activities whereas their presence and interference is needed in all the business operations (Holt and Marques 2012). Contributing factors to leadership challenges As per the viewpoint of Day and Antonakis (2012), some factors are there that can be contribute to the challenges of leadership. Those factors are illustrated in the below section: Goal setting and periodic reviews: Cameron et al. (2014) pointed out that the leaders' foremost responsibility is to set their goals; both short term and long term. Through setting goals, the leaders create the roadmap and direct the entire team. Tannenbaum et al.(2013) added that the leaders should identify their strengths and weaknesses before setting goals. Johnston and Marshall (2016) represented a different viewpoint that the leaders face more challenges as they fail to depict the goal and reason behind taking any specific decisions. As a result, the employees fail to understand why they are doing and what they are going to get. Time management: Day and Antonakis (2012) defined time management as a process of managing energy and activity within specific time. Johnston and Marshall (2016) criticized that most of the leaders face issues as they allow time passing by during making strategies and fixing old issues. In order to deal with the challenges, the leaders should learn to utilize time in the most effective manner through activity and energy management. Effective communication: According to Tannenbaum et al.(2013), in most of the cases, the leaders fails to manage all the activities due to giving less importance to make communication with their teams. Cameron et al. (2014) represented the positive side where it is discussed that the effective communication includes 80/20 rule. This specific rules defines that the effective leaders should listen 80% and talk 20% to its teams. This helps the leaders to understand the teams' perspectives and their viewpoints. On the other ways, the leaders should make sure that 20% will consists the main point so that they can be specific and save the time as well (Cameron et al. 2014). Self-Confidence: As opined by Cameron et al. (2014), self-confidence is the prime factor of leadership. It is quite obvious that the leaders would face uncertainties and unexpected challenges. In most of the cases, the teams' confidence level decreases by seeing the decreasing confidence of their leaders. On contrast, the leaders can motivate their team by maintaining their self confidence. Tannenbaum et al.(2013) added in this context that the leaders also should work in improving personality development. Delegation and Motivation: Johnston and Marshall (2016) stated that the base of delegation and motivation is open communication. The effective leaders gather all the stakeholders and explain the philosophy of work and answer their question as well. Tannenbaum et al.(2013) added that when the employees find themselves valued, they are motivated as well. This increases their willingness to work and improve their efficiency as well. Use of leadership theories and models Some leadership theories and models are there that helps the leaders to overcome the above mentioned challenges. Colbert et al. (2012) described about Trait Theory of Leadership where it is defined that the effective leaders share a number of common personality characteristics. The core traits and qualities in trait theory include integrity, assertiveness, empathy, likability, and good decision-making skills. On the other way, Gavetti (2012) stated that the Behavioral Theory of Leadership is the most influential theory that help them to deal with the challenges. It is discussed that the theory defines the behavior of the leaders to their stakeholders. The behavior of the leaders depends on their personality and the situations. However, Giltinane (2013) argued that there are three types of leaders in terms of behaviors that include Autocratic leaders, Democratic leaders, and Laissez-faire leaders. Giltinane (2013) further defined that the autocratic leaders are the ones who take their decision without consulting with their teams. Holt and Marques (2012) criticized that this behavior might create conflicts in the workplace. However, Goleman et al. (2013) argued that the leaders should understand where the autocratic leadership needs to applied. For example, in such a situation if team agreement is not required and the decisions need to be made quickly, the leaders should be autocratic there. Giltinane (2013) defined further that the democratic leaders are the ones that involve their team in the decision making process. This leadership style and theory is highly recommended in this study. Furtner et al. (2013) defined that the laissez-faire leaders are the ones who do not interfere always and allow their team to make decisions. Rickards (2015) argued that it is possible only when the team is highly capable. Vroom et al. (2015) described about Situational leadership through Vroom and Yetton's Normative Model. It is mentioned that the leaders should involve their teams as participation increases decision acceptance. Afterward, the decision acceptance increases commitment along with effectiveness of the employees in playing their roles. Vroom et al. (2015) added further that the decision making process include five ways depending on the situation. The five ways include two autocratic, two consultative, and one group based. The two ways of autocratic defines that either the leaders gathers information and decide alone, or takes information from the teams and decide alone. The two ways of consultative defines that the leaders share problems with either the individuals or the groups. Lastly, the group based decision making defines the democratic style of leadership (Vroom et al. 2015). Recommendations to resolve leadership challenges The above section consists effective theories and models which would help the leaders to deal with the leadership challenges that they are confronting at present. The study highly recommends that the leaders should incorporate those challenges in their leadership strategies. Apart from this, the study brings out a number of recommendations that are demonstrated in the below section: Specify work culture: As per the discussion of McCleskey (2014), the modernization and globalization is the prime reason of facing cultural diversity in workplaces. The leaders should create a work culture in which would be acceptable by all the stakeholders. Here, it is essential to mention that the leaders should keep in mind that they have to value all the cultures of their employees. In supporting the discussion, van Vugt and Ronay (2014) stated that through creating a specific work culture, the leaders would able to remove the conflicts which is created by cultural diversity. Besides, a common working culture would increase the level of collaboration between the employees and leaders. Provide training programs: The changing working process might not be accepted by all the employees. They might find themselves inefficient in adopting the new business operations. In such cases, the leaders should provide them training programs so that the employees can increase their efficiency (Sperry 2013). This would help the leaders to establish a good employee relationship and increase the productivity as well (McCleskey 2014). Make customer centric goals: McCleskey (2014) further suggested that the effective leaders should always make customer centric goals in order to attain competitive advantages. They should communicate with its customers and address their needs as well as expectations. This would help them to establish good customer relationship which is required for any successful business (Cameron 2012). Strategies for balancing budget: It is mentioned before that the leaders fail to balance their budget because of the increasing cost in incorporating new technological tools. They should ensure that their short term expenditure would give them long term profitability (Cameron 2012). Besides, they should make strategies for maximizing revenues and minimizing cost at the same time. In order to get the best idea, they should engage their teams and pay heed on the viewpoints of the individuals (Sperry 2013). Turn negative energy into positive solution: Friedman et al. (2016) stated that the leaders should utilize their current issues and challenges as a way to generate new ideas, innovation and path to success. They should identify their opportunities and utilize their strength points against the threats they receive from the competitors and the market. Importance of information in workplace As per the viewpoint of Farinha and Sousa (2015), the employees also have some responsibilities in their workplace. They are provided useful information which is important for them to know. Besides, they should pay heed how their leaders lead them and place their opinion in certain situations. Friedman et al. (2016) added that the leaders also need motivation and encourage from their teams. The employees should value the decisions and actions of the people who are leading the organization. Conclusion The study concludes that the leaders have been confronting several issues and challenges in leadership due to the influx of new technology. It has been found that modernization complicates the leadership process and this is the reason the leaders face a number of major problems. Here, the study brings out a number of recommendations which would help the leaders to overcome those challenges. Further, it helps the leaders to attain sustainable development and growth in their businesses. Reference List Cameron, K., 2012.Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Cameron, K.S., Quinn, R.E., DeGraff, J. and Thakor, A.V., 2014.Competing values leadership. Edward Elgar Publishing. Colbert, A.E., Judge, T.A., Choi, D. and Wang, G., 2012. Assessing the trait theory of leadership using self and observer ratings of personality: The mediating role of contributions to group success.The Leadership Quarterly,23(4), pp.670-685. Day, D.V. and Antonakis, J., 2012. Leadership: Past, present, and future.The nature of leadership,2. Farinha, J. and Sousa, M.J., 2015, November. How Leadership Fosters Communication and Impacts Employees Responsibility and Autonomy. InEuropean Conference on Management, Leadership Governance(p. 553). Academic Conferences International Limited. Friedman, M.G., Beckwith, R.M. and Conroy, J.W., 2016. Effective strategies for supporting individuals with complex needs in leadership roles.Inclusion,4(3), pp.170-182. Furtner, M.R., Baldegger, U. and Rauthmann, J.F., 2013. Leading yourself and leading others: Linking self-leadership to transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,22(4), pp.436-449. Gavetti, G., 2012. PerspectiveToward a behavioral theory of strategy. Organization Science,23(1), pp.267-285. Giltinane, C.L., 2013. Leadership styles and theories.Nursing Standard, 27(41), pp.35-39. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A., 2013.Primal leadership: Unleashing the power of emotional intelligence. Harvard Business Press. Holt, S. and Marques, J., 2012. Empathy in leadership: Appropriate or misplaced? An empirical study on a topic that is asking for attention.Journal of business ethics,105(1), pp.95-105. Johnson, C.E., 2013.Meeting the ethical challenges of leadership: Casting light or shadow. Sage Publications. Johnston, M.W. and Marshall, G.W., 2016.Sales force management: Leadership, innovation, technology. Routledge. McCleskey, J.A., 2014. Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development.Journal of Business Studies Quarterly,5(4), p.117. Milner, E. and Joyce, P., 2012.Lessons in Leadership: Meeting the Challenges of Public Service Management. Routledge. Rego, A., e Cunha, M.P. and Clegg, S.R., 2012.The virtues of leadership: Contemporary challenges for global managers. Oxford University Press. Rickards, T., 2015.Dilemmas of leadership. Routledge. Sperry, L., 2013.Effective leadership: Strategies for maximizing executive productivity and health. Routledge. Tannenbaum, R., Weschler, I. and Massarik, F., 2013.Leadership and organization. Routledge. van Vugt, M. and Ronay, R., 2014. The evolutionary psychology of leadership Theory, review, and roadmap.Organizational Psychology Review,4(1), pp.74-95. Vroom, V., Yetton, P. and Jago, A., 2015. Normative Decision Process Theory.Organizational Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership, p.207. Western, S., 2013.Leadership: A critical text. Sage.

The Art of Frieda Kahlo and Chicano Art

Introduction Frida Kahlo was a famous Mexican artist who was known for her self portraits and the intense colors that featured in most of her works. Kahlo was born in 1907 in Coyoacan a small township in Mexico City. She began her painting career after she was involved in a bus accident in 1925 that left her with severe injuries to her spine, her legs, her pelvis and the rest of her body.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Art of Frieda Kahlo and Chicano Art specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kahlo was constantly plagued with pain throughout the rest of her life that at times saw her confined to a hospital bed. She underwent a total of thirty five operations after the accident with most of them being performed on her legs and her back. Kahlo began painting while she was recovering from her accident injuries to occupy her time. She mostly did self-portrayals during the three months she was inert and these piec es of art played a dominant part of her life. She explained that portraying herself in the self portraits was due to the fact that she was the subject she knew best. She also painted herself because she was lonely for the duration she was under bed rest. Her mother, Matilde Calderon, had a special easel made for Frida so that she could paint while she was lying in bed. Her self portrayals mostly relayed the message of pain and anguish which was drawn from her own personal experiences1. Frida Kahlo derived most of her work from the Mexican culture which was mostly characterized by Chicano art during that time. Chicano art works emerged from the Chicano movement that took place during the 1960s and 1970s in America. The term Chicano was used to refer to Mexican Americans who had migrated to America during this time. The Chicano Movement was made up of South American groups such as the Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Costa Ricans, Hondurans, Chilean Americans, Ecuadorians and Dom inican Americans. The movement was formed to fight against racial segregation of South American minorities as well as reassert their civil rights in the US during the1960s and 70s. The Chicano art works mostly focused on the themes that were used in literary works with the preferred media being murals and graphic art forms. Rasquache art is the most common style of Chicano art and it was a unique subset of the political movement2.Advertising Looking for term paper on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Frida Kahlo’s Art Frida Kahlo’s style of painting mostly involved the use of symbolic imagery and Mexican colors. She frequently incorporated the symbolic monkey in her art work which the Mexican culture depicted to be a symbol of lust but Kahlo portrayed the monkey as a tender creature in her work as well as a symbol of protection. Her paintings also portrayed a feminist reality that so many women suff ered with. Her husband’s infidelities, her physical handicaps and her inability to conceive were viewed to be feministic realities that afflicted many women around the world. Many artists and curators viewed Frida Kahlo’s work to mostly portray feminist views as most of her paintings focused on women and gender issues. One of her artworks that demonstrated the feminist reality was a self portrait titled â€Å"My Birth† which she painted in 1932. In this painting, Kahlo’s head emerges from a woman’s outstretched legs with an image above the bed portraying the Mexican Virgin of Sorrow known as Mater Dolorosa being pierced by swords and weeping. This demonstration was a portrayal of Kahlo’s miscarriage which occurred before she painted the art work. Her â€Å"My Birth† self portrait was viewed by many feminist writers to be a depiction of childbirth issues in women that were not properly addressed in the Western world during that time. T he self portrait was also a demonstration of the birth process where women played a more integral role than the men. Her focus on feminism and gender issues also portrayed the various challenges that women went through in the 20th and also the 21st century. Women struggled to find some self identity and self determination as they took up the roles of being mothers and wives within the family context. Kahlo developed an identity in her art work that was not easily expressed in the Mexican and Western society. Her art work dealt with conception, pregnancy, abortion and the role of women in a candid and open manner. Such candidness was viewed by many to be a political statement because before them women were not able to talk about such issues in the open.3Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Art of Frieda Kahlo and Chicano Art specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite the theme of psychological and physical pai n in Kahlo’s work, other themes that were explores were those of Mexican cultural which were portrayed through the use of the country’s national colors. Some of her paintings depicted the love of Mexican things as well as Mexican nationalism which was referred to as â€Å"Mexicanidad†. She depicted â€Å"Mexicanidad† within her art works by the native clothes she wore in her self portraits as well as the furnishings that were in her home. She used elements from popular Mexican art forms such as the ex-votos and the retablos that were 19th century tin paintings created by traveling artists. The retablos paintings were used by these traveling artists to express their gratitude to the Catholic Saints after recovering from illnesses, diseases or from being rescued from disasters. Kahlo’s use of the ex-votos and retablos indigenous art themes demonstrated both political and cultural themes as she painted these themes in a way that was easily understood by the Mexican people. She incorporated the use of Mexican and pre-Colombian art work, imagery and concepts in some of her works which included â€Å"My Nurse and I†, a self portrait that depicts Kahlo in the hands of a nurse with an Olmec mask, â€Å"Tree of Hope† which depicts an image of the sun and the moon as functions that depicted the two sided nature of life. â€Å"The Love Embrace of the Universe† was a self portrait that depicted Kahlo and her husband, Diego, in the arms of the universe personified by the Colombian goddess. Kahlo’s most famous self portrait was† What the Water Gave Me† which was viewed by many artists and feminists to be a self reflection of her traumatic life. The self portrait demonstrated a variety of images that were related to Kahlo’s personal life. These images included an image of her parents, an image depicting her Indian and European background which is demonstrated by an image of one naked Indian wom an and a white woman floating on a sponge.Advertising Looking for term paper on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other images that depicted Kahlo’s tumultuous life included a bleeding heart, a skeleton seated on a mound, a dead bird on a tree and her Tehuana Indian dress which all depicted the physical and psychological pain that she experienced as a result of her accident injuries, the pain of loosing her child as well as her husband’s infidelities.4 Chicano Art As stated earlier Chicano art has its foundation from the Chicano movement that took place in the 1960s and 70s although contemporary artistic Chicano renaissance work had its roots from the folk arts that emerged in the southwestern regions of America during the same period. Chicano artists who were part of the Chicano movement looked for artistic ways to protest about the social inequalities that they were experiencing during the 1960s and 70s. The Chicano artists focused on feminist concerns during that time as they incorporated the works of Frida Kahlo into their art forms. They also used the image of the Virgin of G uadalupe as a feminist role model and a source of inspiration in their art works. The Chicano art circles organized themselves into groups that would be used to promote art and also advance their feminist concerns to the rest of the world.5 The renaissance of Chicano art was seen as a visual expression of the â€Å"movimiento† ideology that existed during the Chicano movement. Examples of these ideologies included cultural affirmation, emphasis on families and social status, brotherhood and political assertion. The most notable Chicano artists included the famous muralist from south California, Judith Baca. Other Chicano artists included Patricia Rodriguez who was a retablo artist, Yolanda Lopez who was a specialist in La Guadalupana paintings, Carmen Lomas Garza who was a specialist on family portraits and Santa Barraza who was a cultural chronicler. Despite the fact that Chicano art emerged from a political movement, it has continued to develop and grow over the years to re present the various cultural contexts of the Mexican society. By the 1990s many Chicano artists had joined a growing group of artists that practiced multiculturalism in their art works. These artists recognized the various changes that were taking place in the society especially within the Mexican American community living in the United States. Chicano art work during this time experienced experimental designs with media forms such as films and videos as well as sculptures and other artistic forms. The Chicano artists also incorporated some aspects of their older art forms to ensure that the original Mexican culture was incorporated into the new age art forms. As the Chicano artists entered into mainstream art, their works began to gain a broader appeal with the American society. During the Chicano movement, Chicano artists mostly adapted themes from mythologies such as Aztec and Maya into their artistic works, in the process creating new art forms that symbolized the struggles that the political activists were going through during the movement. The artists mostly used Pre-Columbian symbols and icons such as Emiliano Zapata who was a Mexican revolutionary and the Virgin of Guadalupe in their murals and artistic posters. These icons were used to demonstrate and express the Chicano’s views on feminism and social realism during that time. Artists who painted murals usually used blank walls as their canvas and most of these artists were usually self-taught barrio youths. These murals were usually painted in urban centers and areas that had high numbers of people at a particular time.6 While many of the Chicano artists borrowed heavily from Mexican culture, some of these artists did not want to be associated with the Mexican culture and history. Some of these artists; Carmen Garza, Margarita Herrera, Alfredo Arreguin and Porfirio Salinas incorporated other aspects into their artistic works apart from Mexican culture. For example, Arreguin’s paintings reflected Indian landscapes while Salinas’ paintings demonstrated Texan landscapes that were mostly characterized by bluebonnet flowers. Garza’s paintings depicted the life of Mexican Americans in Texas during the 1950s and 60s which showed that they did not primarily focus on the Mexican culture as a whole in their artistic works. This shaped the 21st century Chicano artists who focused more on individual artistic expressions and inspiration for their subject matter which showed that their artwork was now focused on personal experiences and self expression. Most of the mural artists viewed these form of canvas as a form of nonverbal communication that could be used to teach the community or Mexican society about ethnic solidarity and cultural nationalism during the political movement. The murals conveyed the message of nationalism, unity and brotherhood through the use of Mexican imagery and symbols that were derived from Mexican Indian history and the 1910 Mexican re volution. The Chicano murals also portrayed the native Mexican history of groups such as the Aztecs and the Maya. The growth of mural portraits and artistic expressions emerged as a result of a strong community orientation in public art forms that depicted the struggle for human rights. 7 Chicano art has began to receive some recognition and respect after many museums around the world failed to accord this type of art work any form of recognition during the 1960s and 70s. This growing recognition has been evidenced by the five year traveling exhibition known as the â€Å"Chicano Visions: American Painters on the verge† that shows the various art works of Chicano artists whose style of painting peaked during the 1980s and 90s. The traveling exhibition took part in 15 cities within the United States with 50 paintings and pictures on display. This exhibition was meant to demonstrate the ongoing reconciliation that Chicano art offered to the Mexican American community by demonstr ating Mexican traditions and American culture. The Chicano art forms were inspired by indigenous pre-Columbian people as well as southwestern American styles of painting. The Chicano artists involved in this exhibition achieved regional success and recognition within the US and South America. 8 Chicano art derived most of its influences from Mexican artists such as Diego Rivera, David Alfaro and Clemente Orozco. These artists image of public art was depicted through their portrayals of liberation struggles and freedom movements during the 1910 revolution in Mexico. The mural art forms that were painted during the 1930 Depression also had an influence on Chicano mural artists who plied most of their trade on blank walls. The Chicano mural artists were also influenced by Tres Grandes works which were mostly eminent during the post revolution period in Mexico. The Chicano artists were stereotyped by major art critics in the US as being artists that produced poor people’s art tha t was mostly radical in nature. They also referred to these artists as being too folklore because of the bright colors they used in their paintings and their murals. Chicano art was therefore not readily acceptable in most of the galleries and exhibitions based in the United States during and after the movement. The American art critics viewed Chicano art to be in conflict with the bourgeois and traditional art tastes that existed during that time. This rejection of Chicano art by the Westernized countries because it was not sophisticated led to the emergence of community based art galleries in the Mexican American communities within the United States. One of the first community based galleries was the Mechicano Art Gallery that was based in the eastern parts of Los Angeles. This gallery mostly exhibited Chicano movement art works and also modern paintings that had Chicano or Mexican influences. Institutions such as the Social and Public Art Resource Center were established to promo te the work of Chicano artists that mostly painted murals. These murals continued to gain more prominence within Los Angeles and were accepted as artistic forms of public art within the city.9 Chicano art has gradually changed today to incorporate a more modern and urban outlook. The modern artists have retained the bold colors and the original format used in most Chicano murals but the subject matter and content in these murals is what has changed. While Mexican natives influences and prominent people still have play a vital role in today’s Chicano artwork, the new subject matter tends to focus on societal issues that affect the Mexican American Chicano artists in the present context. Some of these issues include inequality in education and health care services, immigration issues, drug problems and segregation by the American society. The current Chicano artists have continued to uphold the muralist tradition of painting while at the same time portraying the history of Mexi co as well as Mexican culture. Contribution of Kahlo’s and Chicano’s Art to 20th Century Art Kahlo’s artistic work has been viewed by many people in the art world to have a positive influence in today’s modern art scene. Her work has mostly influenced 20th century Latino art as well as feminist artists because of her self portrait paintings that mostly portrayed the challenges that she went through as a woman. Frida Kahlo has been viewed by many as the most fascinating artist of the 20th century because of her body work and the use of imagery in her self portraits. Kahlo was also viewed to be one of the enigmatic artists in the 20th century which was mostly attributed to her bold and unabashed imagery of her self and her life. Some discomforting self portraits of herself showed her physical wounds such as her deformed right leg which had an open wound as a result of the many operations that she went through after her surgery. 10 Her self portraits have in fluenced a lot of feminist artists and literature writers because of the peaceful resolve that followed many of her discomforting paintings. Her portraits showed a woman who was confident and in total control of her self image despite the many psychological traumas she had gone through in her life. Many female artists in the 20th century identified with Kahlo’s self portraits of psychological pain and suffering and the way she choose to express her emotional feelings on canvas. Many of these 20th Century artists such as Christine Herrera viewed Frida Kahlo to be both a poet and a painter because of her visual comparisons and the use of metaphors in her self portraits to express her feelings. This form of expression contributed in part to the modern artists who mostly relied on their experiences and views on life to create various art forms and paintings. Frida Kahlo’s work was also renowned for its emotional intensity as well as its unrealistic and dream like quality. She was referred to as the heroine of the 1980s because of how she overcame her personal problems to become a renowned artist during her time. In the last twenty years, her work has joined the same ranks as that of famous artists such as Picasso and Van Gaugh. Her image changed from that of being a poster girl for young Latino adolescents to that of being a historical artistic figure used in postal stamps and key chains. Her husband, Diego Rivera, who was also a famous artist viewed Kahlo to be the first woman in art history brave enough to portray the various issues that affected women in an open and uncompromising way.11 Frida Kahlo introduced the aspect of symbolism in her paintings which made them different from those of other artists during her time. People were able to identify Kahlo’s works because of the unique and original introduction of symbolic imagery in most of her self portraits. The symbolic imagery was mostly viewed as a metaphorical depiction of her life esp ecially in her famous â€Å"What the Water Gave Me† self portrait which used symbols such as a dead bird and a bleeding heart to depict her physical and psychological pain. These metaphors were viewed to represent real life issues that afflicted both men and women in their day to day struggles. Her use of metaphors and symbolism made her gain a lot of prominence in the 20th century art world that mostly focused on self expression and the use of symbolism to communicate a message. Her work gained a lot of recognition during the 20th century because of her candid and unobscured portrayal of women’s issues such as menstruation, pregnancy, birth, death, miscarriage, love and suffering. Many 20th century artists viewed her paintings and self portraits as a demonstration of a different view of the world. Her self reflection and analysis of her image was viewed to be an analysis of her self image and worth. This was viewed by many feminists and artists to be a confident look at her self despite the many traumas she had gone through in her life. The importance of her work in contemporary art culture demonstrated that modern cultures around the world were empty and lacked any meaning. Her self reflection was viewed by many people to be a reflection of today’s societal cultural conditions.12 The impact of Chicano art on 20th century art work was deemed to have a positive influence on modern mural paintings as a form of artistic self expression. The visibility of Chicano artists has continued to increase over the years from the period of the Chicano movement. However many Chicano artists during the 20th and 21st century did not receive the appropriate amount of recognition for the paintings and murals. This lack of recognition was mostly attributed to the political affiliation that these artists had to the Chicano movement. Many post modernist artists viewed Chicano art to be full of political innuendos as well as narrative style imagery that was rep resented in bold and bright colors. Major galleries and exhibitions also failed to pick up Chicano paintings because they were tied to Mexican movements13. Some museum curators have tried to incorporate the various styles of painting and imagery that Chicano artists used in their work over the years. Artistic works such as the â€Å"Phantom Sightings’’ incorporated the use of Chicano art practices as well as conceptual foundations in its imagery. This art work was the only notable art form painted in the 20th century that properly depicted the Chicano style of painting. Chicano art incorporated the use of imagery mostly related to Mexican history and culture, an aspect that made it difficult to replicate in other art circles that existed during the 20th century. This categorization of Chicano art was what made it difficult to exhibit this type of art work in major art exhibitions and galleries because it focused on ethnicity and politics.14 Conclusion The research wor k has mostly focused on the art of Frida Kahlo and Chicano and what effects these artists had on 20th century art. According to the findings, Frida Kahlo has been viewed as a feminist artist who contributed to the revolution of modern art through her use of symbolic imagery and metaphors. Kahlo has been viewed by many artists and curators to be the initiator of self expressionist and self reflective art in the world as a result of her various self portraits. Her work is now receiving a lot of recognition because of this which is not the same case for Chicano art. Chicano artists have been gaining slow recognition in the modern art world because their art has been viewed by many 20th century artists to be mostly ethnic, political and folklore. Their murals have however gained acceptance with the modern urban youth who express themselves by using bold colors in their wall paintings. Bibliography Callejo, Carlos.â€Å"Chicano art: now and beyond,† http://www.latinopov.com/blog/? p=344 Hanson, Doug. â€Å"Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience†. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/ Horsley, Carter B. â€Å"Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art,† http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html Meadows, Mary M. â€Å"Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,† http://www.solidarity-   us.org/current/node/2782 Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez. The Mexican American experience: an  encyclopedia. Westport, Cincinnati: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. Miranda, Carolina A., â€Å"How Chicano is it?†, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032 Patrick, Frank. Readings in Latin American Modern Arts. New York: Yale University Press, 2004. Scott, John F. Latin American art: ancient to modern. Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000. Footnotes 1 Pat rick Frank, Readings in Latin American Modern Arts (New York: Yale University Press, 2004), 79 2 John F. Scott. Latin American art: ancient to modern. (Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000),203 3 Mary Motian Meadows, â€Å"Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,† http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782 4 Mary Motian Meadows, â€Å"Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,† http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782 5 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 29. 6 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 28. 7 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 27. 8 Doug Hanson â€Å"Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience†. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/ 9 Carlos Callejo , â€Å"Chicano art: now and beyond , http://www.latinopov.com/blog/?p=344 10 Carter B. Horsley, â€Å" Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html 11 Carter B. Horsley, â€Å" Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html 12 Carter B. Horsley, â€Å" Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html 13 Carolina A. Miranda, â€Å"How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032 14 Carolina A. Miranda, â€Å"How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032 This term paper on The Art of Frieda Kahlo and Chicano Art was written and submitted by user Kristen Knight to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.